Document Type : Research Paper
Authors
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Private and Islamic Law, Faculty of Law and Political Sciences, University of Shiraz, Shiraz, Iran.
2
PhD Student of Private Law, Department of Private and Islamic Law, Faculty of Law and Political Sciences, University of Shiraz, Shiraz, Iran.
Abstract
In the context of international trade, merchants are primarily concerned with concluding a secure sale in the shortest possible time frame. This approach allows them to mitigate risks, reduce costs, and conserve time. Sale by sample is one of the recognized methods to achieve this objective. Particularly in international trade, merchants, before entering into a transaction, request a sample of the goods from sellers to ensure quality and, after testing and approving it, place their order. The need for speed, the long distances involved, the unavailability of all the goods at the time of sale and the difficulty of inspecting the goods in order to eliminate any ambiguities all point to the need for this type of sale in the field of international trade. Sale by sample is a type of sales contract in which the buyer becomes aware of all or part of the characteristics of the subject matter of the transaction based on the sample provided by the seller, and the delivered goods must conform to the mentioned sample. This method is used to describe the goods in order to eliminate ambiguity and specify the object of the sale. When the goods are not available, and the seller wishes to give a full explanation of them, they can present a sample to the buyer. A sample differs from a model. A model may represent all or only some of the characteristics of the goods being ordered for manufacture, while the sample pertains to existing goods.
Jurists have differed in their opinions regarding the validity of sale by sample, particularly on whether the sample constitutes part of the sold goods and whether presenting the sample can replace a description of the goods. They agree that if the sample is part of the existing goods, the contract is valid; otherwise, they consider the contract void due to the lack of determination and description of the goods, as they do not see the presentation of a sample as a substitute for the description of the goods. However, contrary to this earlier view, most jurists consider viewing the sample as providing more clarity about the goods than a mere description. The Civil Code follows the majority opinion and recognizes the validity of the sale by sample. After the transaction is completed, the buyer expects the goods delivered to conform to the sample, and if the delivered goods differ from the sample, it is considered a breach of the seller's obligation, and in the absence of an agreement, the buyer can reject the goods. The International Sale of Goods Convention also recognizes this type of sale, with the seller's primary obligation being to deliver goods that conform to the agreed-upon sample. This research aims, through a comparative study of Iranian law and the International Sale of Goods Convention, with an emphasis on judicial practice, to explore how disputes between parties are resolved in cases where the characteristics of the goods are or are not specified in the contract, and to determine on whom the burden of proof for the non-conformity of the delivered goods with the sample falls in Iranian law and the mentioned convention. Previous research indicates that studies conducted in this area have only addressed the consequences of non-conformity of goods with the sample and have offered a general statement regarding the destruction of the sample by the buyer before the delivery of the goods, without delving into different scenarios or details. A review of the regulations on sale by sample in Iranian law and the International Sale of Goods Convention reveals no explicit guidance on the impact of sample destruction on the obligations of the parties involved. The findings of this research, using a descriptive-analytical method, indicate that if the sample is lost before the seller's obligation is fulfilled, there is a slight difference between Iranian law and the said Convention. In Iranian Civil Code, provided that the characteristics of the goods are mentioned in the contract, the delivery of the sample to the buyer is supplementary, and the seller is discharged of the obligation by delivering goods that match the contractual quality. If the characteristics of the goods are not mentioned in the contract, the seller has the discretion to choose the goods, and the burden of proving non-conformity with the lost sample rests with the buyer, as they are making an additional claim after delivery. However, according to the provisions of the Convention, if the characteristics of the goods are mentioned in the contract and a notice of non-conformity is sent by the buyer to the seller, the burden of proving that the delivered goods conform to the offered sample lies with the seller. In the absence of a specific mention of the characteristics of the goods in question in the contract, the burden of proof regarding any alleged non-conformity rests with the buyer.
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