A Comparative Analysis of Contractual Obligation in Light of the State’s Normative Power: Rereading the “Interpenetrated Obligation” Theory at the Intersection of Public and Private Law

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

1 Assistant Professor, Department of Public and International Law, Faculty of Law and Political Science, University of Mazandaran, Babolsar, Mazandaran, Iran.

2 Associate Professor, Department of International Law, Faculty of Law and Political Science, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran.

10.22059/jlq.2026.399463.1008014

Abstract

Introduction
In Iranian law, contractual obligations have traditionally been analyzed through the lens of party autonomy, with legal duties largely regarded as the direct outcome of private agreement. This classical approach, shaped by nineteenth-century European contract theories—particularly French civil law—assumes that the individual will of the contracting parties alone suffices to create binding obligations. However, contemporary legal practice reveals that contracts operate at the intersection of private choice, public normative authority, and institutional mechanisms tasked with interpreting and enforcing obligations. Economic fluctuations, informational asymmetries, and concerns over social justice increasingly expose the limitations of purely voluntarist models.
This study introduces the “Interpenetrated Obligation Theory,” a conceptual framework proposing that contractual obligations are inherently multi-layered and dynamic. According to this theory, obligations emerge from the ongoing interaction among three interdependent dimensions: the private will of the parties, the normative authority of the state, and institutional mechanisms that interpret, enforce, and adjust obligations in light of social justice and public policy. This approach addresses the limitations of classical voluntarist models, offering a richer understanding of how contracts operate within complex legal, social, and economic contexts.
The central research question asks: How can contractual obligations be analyzed as a phenomenon shaped by both private autonomy and public normative authority? The study posits that obligations in Iranian law are neither purely private nor entirely reducible to state intervention; instead, they result from ongoing interaction among individual choice, institutional recognition, and normative regulation.
Method
This research employs a descriptive–analytical methodology  with comparative legal analysis. The study  proceeds in three stages: (i) a conceptual and theoretical review of both classical and contemporary frameworks, (ii) a comparative examination of contract law doctrines in  France, Germany, and England, and (iii) a doctrinal and jurisprudential study of Iranian Supreme Court unification decisions , particularly the unification rulings issued between  2021–2025 (corresponding to 1400–1404 in the Iranian calendar).
The descriptive stage traces the evolution of contractual obligation theories, from an exclusive focus on party autonomy to functional, institutional, and justice-oriented approaches. The analytical stage identifies gaps in Iranian legal scholarship and practice, highlighting the limitations of voluntarist approaches in capturing the dynamic interplay between private choice and public authority. The comparative analysis positions Iranian law within the broader European context, elucidating similarities and differences in the regulation of fairness, public order, and consumer protection.
Conclusions
Contractual obligations cannot be fully comprehended through a single lens—be it voluntarist, functionalist, or institutionalist. Rather, they arise from the ongoing interaction among private autonomy, public normative authority, and institutional enforcement mechanisms. Article 230 of the Iranian Civil Code and Supreme Court unification rulings demonstrate how judicial processes crystallize obligations while incorporating fairness, public order, and social justice. The Interpenetrated Obligation Theory provides a robust framework for reconceptualizing Iranian contract law, offering guidance for legislative reform, judicial reasoning, and regulatory oversight. It advocates a shift from a static, will-centered paradigm to a dynamic, multi-layered, and justice-oriented understanding of contractual obligations, better equipping Iranian law to confront contemporary economic, social, and institutional challenges.
 
 
 

Keywords

References

منابع
ابهری، حمید؛ فلاح خاریکی، مهدی (۱۳۹۹). شروط غیرمنصفانه در قراردادهای تجاری الکترونیکی در حقوق ایران و اروپا. پژوهشنامۀ حقوق تطبیقی، ۴(۱)، ۹-۳۴. doi:10.22080/lps.2020.2697
امامی، حسن (۱۴۰۲). حقوق مدنی. ج 1، تهران: انتشارات دانشگاه تهران.
امامی، حسن (۱۳۹۳). حقوق مدنی. ج ۶: عقود معین، تهران: اسلامیه.
کاتوزیان، ناصر (۱۳۸۰). قواعد عمومی قراردادها. ج 1، تهران: میزان.
بانک مرکزی جمهوری اسلامی ایران (1403). گزارش تحولات شاخص بهای کالا و خدمات مصرفی: سال ۱۴۰۲. تهران.
https://amar.org.ir/Portals/0/Articles/tavarom140302.pdf?ver
=4SgcHzg9sAjhD4IhSkVbow%3D%3D) (15 مرداد 1404)
کاظمی، محمود (1404). دعوی الزام فروشندۀ مال مرهونه به فک رهن؛ نقد رأی وحدت رویۀ شمارۀ 832 هیأت عمومی دیوان عالی کشور. فصلنامۀ قضاوت، 25 (123)، 1-23.  doi: 10.22034/judg.2025.2071159.1591
    مرکز آمار ایران (1403). اطلاعیۀ شاخص تورّم ماهانۀ اسفند ۱۴۰۲، تهران. http://amar.org.ir/news/ID/15228/shg0212 (20 مرداد 1404)
محقق داماد، سیدمصطفی (۱۳۹۰). نظریۀ عمومی شروط و التزامات در حقوق اسلامی. تهران: مرکز نشر علوم اسلامی.
مرکز پژوهش‌های مجلس شورای اسلامی (1403). گزارش کارشناسی پویایی‌شناسی مسائل و نابسامانی‌های فضای مجازی در ایران. شمارۀ مسلسل 19885، تهران. https://rc.majlis.ir/fa/report/show/1807993 (17 تیرماه 1404)
 
References
Abhari, H., & fallah kharyeki, M. (2020). Unfair Terms in Electronic Commercial Contracts in Iranian law and European law. Journal of Comparative Law, 4(1), 9-34. doi: 10.22080/lps.2020.2697 [in Persian]
Atiyah, P. S. (1979). The Rise and Fall of Freedom of Contract. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Brownsword, R., & Howells, G. (1999). When surfers start to shop: Internet commerce and contract law. Legal Studies, 19(3), 301–322. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-121X.1999.tb00097.x
Bundesgerichtshof (BGH). (2014). Urteil vom 8. April 2014 – KZR 53/12. https://juris.bundesgerichtshof.de/cgibin/rechtsprechung/document.py?Art=en&Datum=2014&Gericht=bgh&Seite=4&Sort=1026&anz=3080&nr=68125&pos=126(Accessed 13 July 2025)
Central Bank of the Islamic Republic of Iran. (2024). Report on Developments of the Consumer Price Index: Year 1402 [2023–2024]. Tehran. https://amar.org.ir/Portals/0/Articles/tavarom140302.pdf?ver=4SgcHzg9sAjhD4IhSkVbow%3D%3D (accessed 6 August 2025). [in Persian]
Collins, H. (1999). Regulating Contracts. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dworkin, R. (1986). Law’s Empire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Emami, H. (2014). Civil Law, Vol. 6: Specific Contracts. Tehran: Eslamiyeh Press. [in Persian]
 Emami, H. (2023). Civil Law. Vol. 1. Tehran: University of Tehran Press [in Persian]
Fried, C. (1981). Contract as Promise. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Hart, H. L. A. (1961). The Concept of Law. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Howells, G., & Weatherill, S. (2022). Consumer Protection Law (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Katouzian, N. (2001). General Principles of Contracts, Vol. 1. Tehran: Mizan Publishing. [in Persian]
Kazmi, M. (2025). The lawsuit against the seller of the mortgaged property to release the mortgage (Review and Analysis of Unanimity Decision No. 832 of the General Board of the Supreme Court). Judgment, 25(123), 1-23. doi: 10.22034/judg.2025.2071159.1591[in Persian]
Loughlin, M. (2010). Foundations of Public Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mohaghegh-Damad, S. M. (2011). General Theory of Conditions and Obligations in Islamic Law. Tehran: Center for Islamic Sciences Publishing. [in Persian]
Research Center of the Islamic Consultative Assembly. (2024). Expert Report on the Dynamics and Disorders of the Cyberspace Environment in Iran, Serial No. 19885. Tehran.
      https://rc.majlis.ir/fa/report/show/1807993 (Accessed 8 July 2025) [in Persian]
Rössler, H. (2007). Hardship in German Codified Private Law – In Comparative Perspective to English, French and International Contract Law. European Review of Private Law, 3, 483–513. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1154004 (Accessed 13 May 2025)
Schmitt, C. (2005). Political Theology: Four Chapters on the Concept of Sovereignty (G. Schwab, Trans.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1932)
Statistical Center of Iran. (2024). Monthly Inflation Index Announcement: Esfand 1402 [March 2024]. Tehran.
     http://amar.org.ir/news/ID/15228/shg0212 (Accessed 11 August 2025). [in Persian]
Wicker, G., & Pelletier, J. (2015). La suppression de la cause et les solutions alternatives. In J. Ghestin & M. Mekki (Eds.), La réforme du droit des obligations en France: 5èmes journées franco-allemandes (pp. 107–137). Paris: Société de législation comparée.
Law Quarterly
Volume 55, Issue 4
January 2026
Pages 631-656

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics